Causes of the Invasion
Underlying Causes of the Invasion
An underlying long-term cause of the Invasion was the emergence of Eurocentrism where Europeans felt they were a more superior race and believed they would eventually outcompete Maori to be the sole race populating the lands of New Zealand. This heightened tensions between Maori and Pakeha.
Scientist Charles Darwin, with the help of Herbert Spencer, developed the theory of Survival of the Fittest, which described the evolutionary theory of natural selection. In this theory, the scientists developed the idea that the strongest species will outcompete a weaker species, inhabiting the territory the two species were fighting over to which the successful species is better adapted. Accustomed to the migration of peoples, this theory was known as Social Darwinism and was reflected in the migration of Europeans to New Zealand. Europeans (the British) held onto the belief that they were a more sophisticated race of people and their established housing, technology, food and health provisions would outcompete that of the Maori natives. When the Europeans came into contact with Maori, they thought this would lead to their destruction and such an idea was known as the Fatal Impact Theory. However historians, who re-examined the Fatal Impact Theory and its effects on the Maori, later discovered that the Maori did not rebuff such European contact, but in fact accepted European culture and technology. Maori thought that contact with Europeans would bring ‘mana’ to their tribes, through the use of muskets and nails, and adapted and improved aspects of European culture to enhance their own Maori culture. This was known as Acculturation and revealed that Maori were indeed a resilient race. The idea that Europeans were a more superior race in comparison to Maori is rejected today as racist. In the eyes of Pakeha settlers, Maori were seen as ‘savages’ and Europeans were needed to constrain their ways. This meant that Europeans felt a right to rule Maori and take their lands to bring about changes that would lead to development. The Invasion of Parihaka was seen as an avenue to confiscate and inhabit Maori land, instilling a sense of discipline among Maori while developing Maori peoples in the image of European values.
Another underlying cause of the Invasion was Maori confusion, following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, over the issue of sovereignty and their rights to autonomously live in New Zealand following the influx of European settlers.
Maori leaders, rangatira, and members of the British Crown signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 on the basis that Maori and Pakeha could live in New Zealand, share resources and jointly lead in government. The Treaty hoped to unify both races. The Treaty had three main sections concerning power, the rights of both races and the ownership of land and property. The English version of the Treaty is said to be mistranslated giving a different meaning to Maori. The British believed that they held full sovereignty in New Zealand, allowing them to create and enforce new laws and gave Maori only fisheries and forest as ‘property’. Maori believed that they gave the British the right to ‘govern’ New Zealand (thought as a sharing of power) while chiefs were guaranteed full possession of existing land, property and inherited treasures. Both versions of the Treaty gave Maori and Pakeha equal rights in New Zealand. As war broke out in the 1860s and Pakeha demanded the rights for more land, confusion later arose for Maori and the issue of sovereignty became a concern for elders and leaders. Maori became worried, as they were unsure and unaware of their rights under the newly lead government and how much political power they held as a result. Parihaka served as an example of a Maori self-sufficient community, which was autonomous without interference from the European colonial government, and separate from a Pakeha idealized way of life. Leaders Te Whiti and Tohu took pride in their accomplishment as a self-sufficient community, with Tohu even later insisting the settlement resists financial assistance from Pakeha in the rebuild of Parihaka in 1883.
Long- term Causes of the Invasion
A long-term cause of the Invasion was land surveying, by government officials, which ultimately lead to land confiscations and the heightening of tensions between Maori and Pakeha.
The increasing European population settling in New Zealand consequently increased the need for land and pressured the government to seize Maori land to sell to immigrating Europeans. Conflict arose around this issue. In March 1860, war broke out in Waitara, south Taranaki, due to a misunderstanding between Maori chiefs of Te Atiawa (Te Teira Manuka and Wiremu Kingi) of selling of land to the Crown for Paheka to live. This event became the catalyst for a series of conflicts to occur over the next 21 years. Maori had the intention to fight for their land and were prepared to partake in physical combat to do so. Emerging leaders, Tohu and Te Whiti, desisted from violence instead taking a non-violence non-cooperation stance against land confiscation. In December 1863 the New Zealand Settlement Act was passed allowing the confiscation (raupatu) of Maori land to be gifted to European settlers and used as bounty to help pay for military personnel who served in the Taranaki wars. This Act was implemented more as a punishment to be used against the ‘rebellious’ Maori. The Act was passed following the British invasion of the Waikato, July 1863, where Maori of the Manukau district and Waikato march north of the Mangatawhiri stream were ordered to take an allegiance to the Queen. Those who refused were sent to retire in the Waikato. Maori who proceeded to ‘take up arms’ with the Europeans were labeled as in ‘open rebellion with Her Majesty’s authority’. Unbeknown to them, such actions caused them to forfeit their rights to land retained by them through the Treaty of Waitangi. The government sent surveyors to Parihaka, due to the knowledge that Parihaka had been build on confiscated lands of Taranaki. The government therefore felt they held the right to send surveyors because in their eyes, Parihaka did not lawfully belong to Parihaka Maori. This idea fuelled John Bryce’s, Minister of Native Affairs, cause to invade Parihaka. In conjunction to this, Pakeha also viewed Parihaka as a symbol of Maori disobedience and separatism in which they believed ‘Maori would strike the first blow’. Potentially threatening the safety of Pakeha, Bryce, colloquially dubbed ‘Bryce the Murderer’ did not allow for anything or anyone to compromise on his position and proposed actions of an invasion. Other prominent figures, such as Major Harry Atkinson, stated that he hoped Maori would be exterminated which reinforced the notion of social Darwinism and viewed Maori as a dying race. Land confiscation became a major issue following the Treaty of Waitangi and in the lead up to the Invasion of Parihaka.
As a long-term cause of the Invasion, Maori undertook non-violent campaigns in an act of resistance to European colonialism, land confiscations and the further spread of European ideas which raised tensions with the government.
Taranaki Maori and members of the Parihaka community initiated the Ploughmen Campaign in 1879, under the authority of Te Whiti and Tohu, using non-violent methods in order to deter Pakeha from the outbreak of violent conflict. Te Whiti emphasized that the campaign was not a direct action against the settlers but rather against the government and its policies. Pakeha of the area became aware of the campaign and further equipped themselves for a war. Major Henry Atkinson toured the Taranaki area, supplying volunteers with Sinder rifles replacing Enfields. The Taranaki Herald reported, 7 June, ‘He hoped (Atkinson), if war did come, the native would be exterminated.’ During this campaign, Maori went about ploughing, fencing and took away surveyors pegs that had been placed, by Pakeha, on confiscated lands on the Waimate plain. Maori who were caught by Pakeha undertaking such actions were detained, arrested and imprisoned in a South Island jail without trial. During this campaign, Maori were sending a message to Pakeha; they did not want to pertain in violence with them but rather wanted to live peacefully, co-inhabiting neighbouring lands, without a constant threat of conflict. The actions of Maori were significantly different to that of Pakeha. Pakeha were on the lookout for grounds to arrest Maori or to create conflict with them. Taranaki Maori showed no interest for such conflict and continued to passively resist the movement of Pakeha settlers. This was the legacy that Maori left behind.
Key Factors
The establishment of Parihaka and the further spread of ideas on resistance and Maori views became a key factor of the Invasion of Parihaka.
Two emerging prophets, Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi of Taranakai, established Parihaka; a pacifist community of Maori who were religiously inclined to desist from violent interactions with Pakeha and spread ideas of resistance and Maori views. Both prophets were born of prominent Maori patronage and were related through their fathers (Te Toamai and Hone Kakahi) being cousins. Te Whiti and Tohu lived a spiritual life and at a young age Maori elders believed they had been gifted with a spiritual power. Along with attending Johann Riemenschneider’s mission school at Warea, both men were greatly influenced by Christianity and held onto values such as peace, non-violence and passive resistance. Te Whiti and Tohu gained a following of Maori holding onto Christian values through their preaching that Maori were the lost tribes of Israel. Following the outbreak of war in Taranaki, Te Whiti and Tohu founded Parihaka in southern Taranaki; a secluded settlement which Maori could live at and who held onto the same peaceful values. Both leaders hoped to spread their views on Maori resistance but wanted the nature of such actions to be religiously inclined. The leaders hoped violence would not occur as a result. The settlement grew to be the largest Maori settlement in the country, at the same time that Te Whiti and Tohu’s following grew nationwide. This growing following particularly gained attention from the government. The government grew concerned over the Parihaka settlement as they thought it as a way for Maori to defy government rule whilst stopping the developing relationship between Pakeha and Maori by excluding themselves. European settlers viewed the settlement in the same light as the government. They believed the nature of the settlement was violent and the protest actions, lead by Te Whiti and Tohu, would be also be violent in nature. Settlers lived in fear of Parihaka Maori and worried for their own safety. However, the perspectives of the settlers did not corroborate with the nature and intentions of the prophets. It was not in their nature to invoke conflict and lead violent actions against Pakeha. The actions of Te Whiti and Tohu diminished the Pakeha idea that Maori were ‘savages’, instead introducing the idea that Maori would accept European settlers, and wanted to live peacefully. However, they did not agree with the confiscation of land and a complete European domination in New Zealand. Te Whiti and Tohu showed how relations between Maori and Pakeha could have been and left a lasting legacy on Maori. This includes a legacy of passive resistance.
An underlying long-term cause of the Invasion was the emergence of Eurocentrism where Europeans felt they were a more superior race and believed they would eventually outcompete Maori to be the sole race populating the lands of New Zealand. This heightened tensions between Maori and Pakeha.
Scientist Charles Darwin, with the help of Herbert Spencer, developed the theory of Survival of the Fittest, which described the evolutionary theory of natural selection. In this theory, the scientists developed the idea that the strongest species will outcompete a weaker species, inhabiting the territory the two species were fighting over to which the successful species is better adapted. Accustomed to the migration of peoples, this theory was known as Social Darwinism and was reflected in the migration of Europeans to New Zealand. Europeans (the British) held onto the belief that they were a more sophisticated race of people and their established housing, technology, food and health provisions would outcompete that of the Maori natives. When the Europeans came into contact with Maori, they thought this would lead to their destruction and such an idea was known as the Fatal Impact Theory. However historians, who re-examined the Fatal Impact Theory and its effects on the Maori, later discovered that the Maori did not rebuff such European contact, but in fact accepted European culture and technology. Maori thought that contact with Europeans would bring ‘mana’ to their tribes, through the use of muskets and nails, and adapted and improved aspects of European culture to enhance their own Maori culture. This was known as Acculturation and revealed that Maori were indeed a resilient race. The idea that Europeans were a more superior race in comparison to Maori is rejected today as racist. In the eyes of Pakeha settlers, Maori were seen as ‘savages’ and Europeans were needed to constrain their ways. This meant that Europeans felt a right to rule Maori and take their lands to bring about changes that would lead to development. The Invasion of Parihaka was seen as an avenue to confiscate and inhabit Maori land, instilling a sense of discipline among Maori while developing Maori peoples in the image of European values.
Another underlying cause of the Invasion was Maori confusion, following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, over the issue of sovereignty and their rights to autonomously live in New Zealand following the influx of European settlers.
Maori leaders, rangatira, and members of the British Crown signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 on the basis that Maori and Pakeha could live in New Zealand, share resources and jointly lead in government. The Treaty hoped to unify both races. The Treaty had three main sections concerning power, the rights of both races and the ownership of land and property. The English version of the Treaty is said to be mistranslated giving a different meaning to Maori. The British believed that they held full sovereignty in New Zealand, allowing them to create and enforce new laws and gave Maori only fisheries and forest as ‘property’. Maori believed that they gave the British the right to ‘govern’ New Zealand (thought as a sharing of power) while chiefs were guaranteed full possession of existing land, property and inherited treasures. Both versions of the Treaty gave Maori and Pakeha equal rights in New Zealand. As war broke out in the 1860s and Pakeha demanded the rights for more land, confusion later arose for Maori and the issue of sovereignty became a concern for elders and leaders. Maori became worried, as they were unsure and unaware of their rights under the newly lead government and how much political power they held as a result. Parihaka served as an example of a Maori self-sufficient community, which was autonomous without interference from the European colonial government, and separate from a Pakeha idealized way of life. Leaders Te Whiti and Tohu took pride in their accomplishment as a self-sufficient community, with Tohu even later insisting the settlement resists financial assistance from Pakeha in the rebuild of Parihaka in 1883.
Long- term Causes of the Invasion
A long-term cause of the Invasion was land surveying, by government officials, which ultimately lead to land confiscations and the heightening of tensions between Maori and Pakeha.
The increasing European population settling in New Zealand consequently increased the need for land and pressured the government to seize Maori land to sell to immigrating Europeans. Conflict arose around this issue. In March 1860, war broke out in Waitara, south Taranaki, due to a misunderstanding between Maori chiefs of Te Atiawa (Te Teira Manuka and Wiremu Kingi) of selling of land to the Crown for Paheka to live. This event became the catalyst for a series of conflicts to occur over the next 21 years. Maori had the intention to fight for their land and were prepared to partake in physical combat to do so. Emerging leaders, Tohu and Te Whiti, desisted from violence instead taking a non-violence non-cooperation stance against land confiscation. In December 1863 the New Zealand Settlement Act was passed allowing the confiscation (raupatu) of Maori land to be gifted to European settlers and used as bounty to help pay for military personnel who served in the Taranaki wars. This Act was implemented more as a punishment to be used against the ‘rebellious’ Maori. The Act was passed following the British invasion of the Waikato, July 1863, where Maori of the Manukau district and Waikato march north of the Mangatawhiri stream were ordered to take an allegiance to the Queen. Those who refused were sent to retire in the Waikato. Maori who proceeded to ‘take up arms’ with the Europeans were labeled as in ‘open rebellion with Her Majesty’s authority’. Unbeknown to them, such actions caused them to forfeit their rights to land retained by them through the Treaty of Waitangi. The government sent surveyors to Parihaka, due to the knowledge that Parihaka had been build on confiscated lands of Taranaki. The government therefore felt they held the right to send surveyors because in their eyes, Parihaka did not lawfully belong to Parihaka Maori. This idea fuelled John Bryce’s, Minister of Native Affairs, cause to invade Parihaka. In conjunction to this, Pakeha also viewed Parihaka as a symbol of Maori disobedience and separatism in which they believed ‘Maori would strike the first blow’. Potentially threatening the safety of Pakeha, Bryce, colloquially dubbed ‘Bryce the Murderer’ did not allow for anything or anyone to compromise on his position and proposed actions of an invasion. Other prominent figures, such as Major Harry Atkinson, stated that he hoped Maori would be exterminated which reinforced the notion of social Darwinism and viewed Maori as a dying race. Land confiscation became a major issue following the Treaty of Waitangi and in the lead up to the Invasion of Parihaka.
As a long-term cause of the Invasion, Maori undertook non-violent campaigns in an act of resistance to European colonialism, land confiscations and the further spread of European ideas which raised tensions with the government.
Taranaki Maori and members of the Parihaka community initiated the Ploughmen Campaign in 1879, under the authority of Te Whiti and Tohu, using non-violent methods in order to deter Pakeha from the outbreak of violent conflict. Te Whiti emphasized that the campaign was not a direct action against the settlers but rather against the government and its policies. Pakeha of the area became aware of the campaign and further equipped themselves for a war. Major Henry Atkinson toured the Taranaki area, supplying volunteers with Sinder rifles replacing Enfields. The Taranaki Herald reported, 7 June, ‘He hoped (Atkinson), if war did come, the native would be exterminated.’ During this campaign, Maori went about ploughing, fencing and took away surveyors pegs that had been placed, by Pakeha, on confiscated lands on the Waimate plain. Maori who were caught by Pakeha undertaking such actions were detained, arrested and imprisoned in a South Island jail without trial. During this campaign, Maori were sending a message to Pakeha; they did not want to pertain in violence with them but rather wanted to live peacefully, co-inhabiting neighbouring lands, without a constant threat of conflict. The actions of Maori were significantly different to that of Pakeha. Pakeha were on the lookout for grounds to arrest Maori or to create conflict with them. Taranaki Maori showed no interest for such conflict and continued to passively resist the movement of Pakeha settlers. This was the legacy that Maori left behind.
Key Factors
The establishment of Parihaka and the further spread of ideas on resistance and Maori views became a key factor of the Invasion of Parihaka.
Two emerging prophets, Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi of Taranakai, established Parihaka; a pacifist community of Maori who were religiously inclined to desist from violent interactions with Pakeha and spread ideas of resistance and Maori views. Both prophets were born of prominent Maori patronage and were related through their fathers (Te Toamai and Hone Kakahi) being cousins. Te Whiti and Tohu lived a spiritual life and at a young age Maori elders believed they had been gifted with a spiritual power. Along with attending Johann Riemenschneider’s mission school at Warea, both men were greatly influenced by Christianity and held onto values such as peace, non-violence and passive resistance. Te Whiti and Tohu gained a following of Maori holding onto Christian values through their preaching that Maori were the lost tribes of Israel. Following the outbreak of war in Taranaki, Te Whiti and Tohu founded Parihaka in southern Taranaki; a secluded settlement which Maori could live at and who held onto the same peaceful values. Both leaders hoped to spread their views on Maori resistance but wanted the nature of such actions to be religiously inclined. The leaders hoped violence would not occur as a result. The settlement grew to be the largest Maori settlement in the country, at the same time that Te Whiti and Tohu’s following grew nationwide. This growing following particularly gained attention from the government. The government grew concerned over the Parihaka settlement as they thought it as a way for Maori to defy government rule whilst stopping the developing relationship between Pakeha and Maori by excluding themselves. European settlers viewed the settlement in the same light as the government. They believed the nature of the settlement was violent and the protest actions, lead by Te Whiti and Tohu, would be also be violent in nature. Settlers lived in fear of Parihaka Maori and worried for their own safety. However, the perspectives of the settlers did not corroborate with the nature and intentions of the prophets. It was not in their nature to invoke conflict and lead violent actions against Pakeha. The actions of Te Whiti and Tohu diminished the Pakeha idea that Maori were ‘savages’, instead introducing the idea that Maori would accept European settlers, and wanted to live peacefully. However, they did not agree with the confiscation of land and a complete European domination in New Zealand. Te Whiti and Tohu showed how relations between Maori and Pakeha could have been and left a lasting legacy on Maori. This includes a legacy of passive resistance.